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All nature owed its
existence to the Ri and Ki, the determining principle and the vital
force of primordial aura that produces and modifies motion. Wang held
that these two were inseparable. His teaching was therefore monistic.
"(3) Chutsz taught that the primary principle, Ri, and the mind of
man were quite separate, and that the latter was attached to the Ki.
Wang held that the mind of man and the principle of the universe were
one and the same, and argued that no study of external nature was
required in order to find out nature's laws. To discover these, man
had only to look within his own heart. He that understands his own
heart understands nature, says Wang.
"(4) Chutsz's system makes experience necessary in order to
understand the laws of the universe, but Wang's idealism dispenses
with it altogether as a teacher.
"(5) Chutsz taught that knowledge must come first and right conduct
after. Wang contended that knowledge and conduct cannot be separated.
One is part of the other. Chutsz may be said to exalt learned
theories and principles, and Wang to extol practice.
"The moral results of the systems briefly stated were as follows:
Chutsz 'a teaching produced many learned men in this country, but not
infrequently these men were inferior, being narrow-minded,
prejudiced, and behind the age. Wang's doctrines, on the other hand,
while they cannot escape the charge of shallowness on all occasions,
serve the moral purpose for which they were propagated better than
those of the rival school. Though in the ranks of the Japanese
followers of Chutsz there were numbers of insignificant, bigoted
traditionalists, the same cannot be said of those who adopted Wang's
views. They were as a class fine specimens of humanity, abreast, if
not ahead, of the age in which they lived. No system of teaching has
produced anything approaching such a number of remarkable men. If a
tree is to be judged by its fruit, Wang's philosophy in Japan must be
pronounced one of the greatest benefits that she received from the
neighbouring continent, though not a little of its power in this
country is to be traced to the personality of the man who was the
first to make it thoroughly known to his fellow countrymen, Nakaye
Toju."*
*See Professor Walter Dening's brochure on Confucian Philosophy in
Japan.
Dr. Inouye adds: "By exclusive attention to the dictates of
conscience and by sheer force of will the Wang school of philosophers
succeeded in reaching a standard of attainment that served to make
them models for posterity. The integrity of heart preached by his
followers in Japan has become a national heritage of which all
Japanese are proud. In the West, ethics has become too exclusively a
subject of intellectual inquiry, a question as to which of rival
theories is the most logical. By the Japanese, practical virtue has
been exalted to the pedestal of the highest honour."
The same authority, discussing the merits of the Chutsz school, says:
"To the question which has so often been asked during the past few
years, whence comes the Japanese fine ethical standard, the answer is
that it undoubtedly originated with the teaching of Chutsz as
explained, modified, and carried into practice in Japan. The moral
philosophy of the Chutsz school in Japan compared with that of the
other two schools was moderate in tone, free from eccentricities, and
practical in a rare degree. In the enormous importance it attached to
self-culture and what is known in modern terminology as
self-realization, the teaching of the Chutsz school of Japanese
moralists differed in no material respects from the doctrines of the
New Kantians in England."
RETIREMENT OF SADANOBU
After six years of most enlightened service, Matsudaira Sadanobu
resigned office in 1793 to the surprise and consternation of all
truly patriotic Japanese. History is uncertain as to the exact cause
of his retirement, but the explanation seems to be, first, that his
uncompromising zeal of reform had earned him many enemies who watched
constantly for an opportunity to attack him, and found it during his
absence on a visit to inspect the coasts of the empire with a view to
enforcing the veto against foreign trade; and secondly, that a
question of prime importance having arisen between the Courts of
Kyoto and Yedo, Sadanobu's influence was exercised in a manner deeply
resented by the sovereign as well as by the loyalists throughout the
empire. This important incident will be presently referred to in
detail. Here it will suffice to state that Sadanobu did not retire in
disgrace. He was promoted to the rank of general of the Left, which
honour was supplemented by an invitation to attend at the castle on
State occasions. He chose, however, to live in retirement, devoting
himself to the administration of his own domain and to literary
pursuits. The author of several well-known books, he is remembered by
his pen-name, Rakuo, almost as constantly as by his historical,
Sadanobu. He died in 1829, at the age of seventy-two.
HITOTSUBASHI HARUNARI
After Sadanobu's resignation of the post of prime minister, the
shogun's father, Hitotsubashi Harunari, moved into the western
citadel of Yedo Castle, and thenceforth the great reforms which
Sadanobu had effected by the force of genius and unflagging
assiduity, were quickly replaced by an age of retrogression, so that
posterity learned to speak of the prodigality of the Bunka and Bunsei
eras (1804-1829), instead of the frugality of the Kwansei
(1789-1800). As for the shogun, Ienari, he received from the Throne
the highest rank attainable by a subject, together with the office of
daijo-daijin. Such honour was without precedent since the time of
Ieyasu. Ienari had more than fifty daughters, all born of different
mothers, from which fact the dimensions of his harem may be inferred.
THE 119TH SOVEREIGN, THE EMPEROR KOKAKU (A.D. 1780-1816)
The Emperor Kokaku ascended the throne in 1780 and abdicated in 1816.
He was undoubtedly a wise sovereign and as a classical scholar he won
considerable renown. After reigning for thirty-six years, he
administered State affairs from the Palace of Retirement during
twenty-four, and throughout that long interval of sixty years, the
country enjoyed profound peace. The period of Sadanobu's service as
prime minister of the Bakufu coincided with the middle of Kokaku's
reign, and in those days of happiness and prosperity men were wont to
say that with a wise sovereign in the west a wise subject had
appeared in the east. Up to that time the relations between Kyoto and
Yedo were excellent, but Sadanobu's resignation and the cause that
led to it produced between the two Courts a breach which contributed
materially, though indirectly, to the ultimate fall of the Tokugawa.
REBUILDING OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE
It has already been noted that after the great fire of 1788, the
Bakufu, acting, of course, at the instance of their prime minister,
ordered Sadanobu to supervise the work of reconstructing the Imperial
palace. Since the days of Oda and Toyotomi, the palace had been
rebuilt or extensively repaired on several occasions, but always the
plans had been too small for the requirements of the orthodox
ceremonials. Sadanobu determined to correct this fault. He called for
plans and elevations upon the bases of those of the tenth century,
and from the gates to the roofs he took care that everything should
be modelled on the old lines. The edifices are said to have been at
once chaste and magnificent, the internal decorations being from the
brushes of the best artists of the Tosa and Sumiyoshi Academies.
Sealed estimates had been required from several leading architects,
and Sadanobu surprised his colleagues by awarding the work to the
highest bidder, on the ground that cheapness could not consist with
true merit in such a case, and that any thought of cost would evince
a want of reverence towards the Imperial Court. The buildings were
finished in two years, and the two Emperors, the reigning and the
retired, took up their residence there. His Majesty Kokaku rewarded
the shogun with an autograph letter of thanks as well as a verse of
poetry composed by himself, and on Sadanobu he conferred a sword and
an album of poems. The shogun Ienari is said to have been profoundly
gratified by this mark of Imperial favour. He openly attributed it to
Sadanobu's exertions, and he presented to the latter a facsimile of
the autograph letter.
THE TITLE TROUBLE
In the very year (1791) following the Emperor's entry into the new
palace, a most untoward incident occurred. Up to that time the
relations between the Courts of Kyoto and Yedo had left nothing to be
desired, but now a permanent breach of amity took place. The
sovereign was the son of Prince Tsunehito, head of the Kanin family.
This prince, in spite of his high title, was required by Court
etiquette to sit below the ministers of State on ceremonial occasions
in the palace. Such an order of precedence offended the sovereign,
and his Majesty proposed that the rank of dajo tenno should be given
to his father, thus placing him in the position of a retired Emperor.
Of course it was within the prerogative of the Emperor to confer
titles. The normal procedure would have been to give the desired rank
to Prince Tsunehito, and then to inform the Bakufu of the
accomplished fact. But, in consideration of the very friendly
relations existing between the two Courts, the sovereign seems to
have been unwilling to act on his own initiative in a matter of such
importance.
Yedo was consulted, and to the surprise of Kyoto, the Bakufu prime
minister assumed an attitude hostile to the Court's desire. The
explanation of this singular act on Sadanobu's part was that a
precisely analogous problem perplexed Yedo simultaneously. When
Ienari was nominated shogun, his father, Hitotsubashi Harunari, fully
expected to be appointed guardian of the new potentate, and being
disappointed in that hope, he expressed his desire to receive the
title of o-gosho (retired shogun), so that he might enter the western
citadel of Yedo Castle and thence administer affairs as had been done
by ex-Emperors in Kyoto for hundreds of years, and by ex-shoguns on
several occasions under the Tokugawa.
existence to the Ri and Ki, the determining principle and the vital
force of primordial aura that produces and modifies motion. Wang held
that these two were inseparable. His teaching was therefore monistic.
"(3) Chutsz taught that the primary principle, Ri, and the mind of
man were quite separate, and that the latter was attached to the Ki.
Wang held that the mind of man and the principle of the universe were
one and the same, and argued that no study of external nature was
required in order to find out nature's laws. To discover these, man
had only to look within his own heart. He that understands his own
heart understands nature, says Wang.
"(4) Chutsz's system makes experience necessary in order to
understand the laws of the universe, but Wang's idealism dispenses
with it altogether as a teacher.
"(5) Chutsz taught that knowledge must come first and right conduct
after. Wang contended that knowledge and conduct cannot be separated.
One is part of the other. Chutsz may be said to exalt learned
theories and principles, and Wang to extol practice.
"The moral results of the systems briefly stated were as follows:
Chutsz 'a teaching produced many learned men in this country, but not
infrequently these men were inferior, being narrow-minded,
prejudiced, and behind the age. Wang's doctrines, on the other hand,
while they cannot escape the charge of shallowness on all occasions,
serve the moral purpose for which they were propagated better than
those of the rival school. Though in the ranks of the Japanese
followers of Chutsz there were numbers of insignificant, bigoted
traditionalists, the same cannot be said of those who adopted Wang's
views. They were as a class fine specimens of humanity, abreast, if
not ahead, of the age in which they lived. No system of teaching has
produced anything approaching such a number of remarkable men. If a
tree is to be judged by its fruit, Wang's philosophy in Japan must be
pronounced one of the greatest benefits that she received from the
neighbouring continent, though not a little of its power in this
country is to be traced to the personality of the man who was the
first to make it thoroughly known to his fellow countrymen, Nakaye
Toju."*
*See Professor Walter Dening's brochure on Confucian Philosophy in
Japan.
Dr. Inouye adds: "By exclusive attention to the dictates of
conscience and by sheer force of will the Wang school of philosophers
succeeded in reaching a standard of attainment that served to make
them models for posterity. The integrity of heart preached by his
followers in Japan has become a national heritage of which all
Japanese are proud. In the West, ethics has become too exclusively a
subject of intellectual inquiry, a question as to which of rival
theories is the most logical. By the Japanese, practical virtue has
been exalted to the pedestal of the highest honour."
The same authority, discussing the merits of the Chutsz school, says:
"To the question which has so often been asked during the past few
years, whence comes the Japanese fine ethical standard, the answer is
that it undoubtedly originated with the teaching of Chutsz as
explained, modified, and carried into practice in Japan. The moral
philosophy of the Chutsz school in Japan compared with that of the
other two schools was moderate in tone, free from eccentricities, and
practical in a rare degree. In the enormous importance it attached to
self-culture and what is known in modern terminology as
self-realization, the teaching of the Chutsz school of Japanese
moralists differed in no material respects from the doctrines of the
New Kantians in England."
RETIREMENT OF SADANOBU
After six years of most enlightened service, Matsudaira Sadanobu
resigned office in 1793 to the surprise and consternation of all
truly patriotic Japanese. History is uncertain as to the exact cause
of his retirement, but the explanation seems to be, first, that his
uncompromising zeal of reform had earned him many enemies who watched
constantly for an opportunity to attack him, and found it during his
absence on a visit to inspect the coasts of the empire with a view to
enforcing the veto against foreign trade; and secondly, that a
question of prime importance having arisen between the Courts of
Kyoto and Yedo, Sadanobu's influence was exercised in a manner deeply
resented by the sovereign as well as by the loyalists throughout the
empire. This important incident will be presently referred to in
detail. Here it will suffice to state that Sadanobu did not retire in
disgrace. He was promoted to the rank of general of the Left, which
honour was supplemented by an invitation to attend at the castle on
State occasions. He chose, however, to live in retirement, devoting
himself to the administration of his own domain and to literary
pursuits. The author of several well-known books, he is remembered by
his pen-name, Rakuo, almost as constantly as by his historical,
Sadanobu. He died in 1829, at the age of seventy-two.
HITOTSUBASHI HARUNARI
After Sadanobu's resignation of the post of prime minister, the
shogun's father, Hitotsubashi Harunari, moved into the western
citadel of Yedo Castle, and thenceforth the great reforms which
Sadanobu had effected by the force of genius and unflagging
assiduity, were quickly replaced by an age of retrogression, so that
posterity learned to speak of the prodigality of the Bunka and Bunsei
eras (1804-1829), instead of the frugality of the Kwansei
(1789-1800). As for the shogun, Ienari, he received from the Throne
the highest rank attainable by a subject, together with the office of
daijo-daijin. Such honour was without precedent since the time of
Ieyasu. Ienari had more than fifty daughters, all born of different
mothers, from which fact the dimensions of his harem may be inferred.
THE 119TH SOVEREIGN, THE EMPEROR KOKAKU (A.D. 1780-1816)
The Emperor Kokaku ascended the throne in 1780 and abdicated in 1816.
He was undoubtedly a wise sovereign and as a classical scholar he won
considerable renown. After reigning for thirty-six years, he
administered State affairs from the Palace of Retirement during
twenty-four, and throughout that long interval of sixty years, the
country enjoyed profound peace. The period of Sadanobu's service as
prime minister of the Bakufu coincided with the middle of Kokaku's
reign, and in those days of happiness and prosperity men were wont to
say that with a wise sovereign in the west a wise subject had
appeared in the east. Up to that time the relations between Kyoto and
Yedo were excellent, but Sadanobu's resignation and the cause that
led to it produced between the two Courts a breach which contributed
materially, though indirectly, to the ultimate fall of the Tokugawa.
REBUILDING OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE
It has already been noted that after the great fire of 1788, the
Bakufu, acting, of course, at the instance of their prime minister,
ordered Sadanobu to supervise the work of reconstructing the Imperial
palace. Since the days of Oda and Toyotomi, the palace had been
rebuilt or extensively repaired on several occasions, but always the
plans had been too small for the requirements of the orthodox
ceremonials. Sadanobu determined to correct this fault. He called for
plans and elevations upon the bases of those of the tenth century,
and from the gates to the roofs he took care that everything should
be modelled on the old lines. The edifices are said to have been at
once chaste and magnificent, the internal decorations being from the
brushes of the best artists of the Tosa and Sumiyoshi Academies.
Sealed estimates had been required from several leading architects,
and Sadanobu surprised his colleagues by awarding the work to the
highest bidder, on the ground that cheapness could not consist with
true merit in such a case, and that any thought of cost would evince
a want of reverence towards the Imperial Court. The buildings were
finished in two years, and the two Emperors, the reigning and the
retired, took up their residence there. His Majesty Kokaku rewarded
the shogun with an autograph letter of thanks as well as a verse of
poetry composed by himself, and on Sadanobu he conferred a sword and
an album of poems. The shogun Ienari is said to have been profoundly
gratified by this mark of Imperial favour. He openly attributed it to
Sadanobu's exertions, and he presented to the latter a facsimile of
the autograph letter.
THE TITLE TROUBLE
In the very year (1791) following the Emperor's entry into the new
palace, a most untoward incident occurred. Up to that time the
relations between the Courts of Kyoto and Yedo had left nothing to be
desired, but now a permanent breach of amity took place. The
sovereign was the son of Prince Tsunehito, head of the Kanin family.
This prince, in spite of his high title, was required by Court
etiquette to sit below the ministers of State on ceremonial occasions
in the palace. Such an order of precedence offended the sovereign,
and his Majesty proposed that the rank of dajo tenno should be given
to his father, thus placing him in the position of a retired Emperor.
Of course it was within the prerogative of the Emperor to confer
titles. The normal procedure would have been to give the desired rank
to Prince Tsunehito, and then to inform the Bakufu of the
accomplished fact. But, in consideration of the very friendly
relations existing between the two Courts, the sovereign seems to
have been unwilling to act on his own initiative in a matter of such
importance.
Yedo was consulted, and to the surprise of Kyoto, the Bakufu prime
minister assumed an attitude hostile to the Court's desire. The
explanation of this singular act on Sadanobu's part was that a
precisely analogous problem perplexed Yedo simultaneously. When
Ienari was nominated shogun, his father, Hitotsubashi Harunari, fully
expected to be appointed guardian of the new potentate, and being
disappointed in that hope, he expressed his desire to receive the
title of o-gosho (retired shogun), so that he might enter the western
citadel of Yedo Castle and thence administer affairs as had been done
by ex-Emperors in Kyoto for hundreds of years, and by ex-shoguns on
several occasions under the Tokugawa.
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